“And the newly radicalized need not necessarily pack up and head for the Middle East – jihadi groups encourage attacks at home to avoid the risk of infiltration while travelling,” Alarid wrote.

Turcalo said social media networks and apps such as Skype were the first channels of recruitment, but their reach was limited.

Social media allows a potential recruit “to become familiar with the situation in the field and the experiences of those who have gone to battlefields before,” he said. There, they got “the desirable, not the realistic” picture of the front.

But, he explained, “YouTube has never been a serious tool for two-way communication due to its nature, but it has served as some sort of guidance for people who have accepted radical and violent narratives towards authorities in that milieu.

“The key reason for changing the platforms for two-way communication in that milieu was that Telegram, Signal and similar platforms offer the possibility of encrypting communication.”

Turcalo said Telegram remained particularly popular but that some research suggested recruitment was moving increasingly to chat rooms in online gaming.

‘You can stop it at upload’

Farid’s eGLYPH programme relies on human moderators who judge whether content should be considered radical, such as images of child abuse or radicalisation videos or bomb-making instructions.

“People make an assessment and then computers take over in the following way – a computer takes that image, video or audio recording and extracts a signature or fingerprint from that content,” Farid said. “As the content keeps circulating on the Internet, the signature always remains the same.”

“Once you determine it is illegal, you can stop it at upload. There is no reason for seeing that content ever again. It is a very efficient technology.”

In its state-level Strategy for Preventing and Combating Terrorism 2015-2020, Bosnia and Herzegovina paid special attention to the phenomenon of online radicalisation, which BIRN has written about before, but most of the measures prescribed have proven impossible to enact.

Tackling extremist content on encrypted apps such as Telegram or Viber has vexed countries around the world. But the means to act against extremist content on the Internet have advanced considerably. Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, is dragging its feet.

According to Turcalo, the country “does not have a systematic approach” to removing radical content from the Internet.

“For that purpose, when a new strategy for preventing and combating terrorism is prepared, it would be necessary to incorporate some important definitions in the official document or prepare a separate strategy for preventing violent extremism,” he said.

Communications Regulator: ‘We should not be involved’

According to the strategy, responsibility for regulating content on Internet portals falls mainly on Bosnia’s Communications Regulatory Agency, CRA.

The CRA, however, said that during the drafting of the strategy the agency made clear it was up to the police and judiciary to tackle violent and terrorism-related content.

Nedzad Eminagic, head of CRA’s Market Regulation Sector, says that in 2002, when regulation of the Internet was introduced in Bosnia and Herzegovina, it was stated explicitly that the CRA should in no way interfere in Internet content.

“In the first license for an Internet provider, we incorporated a provision that the Internet provider must not control the content, because they are technically not capable of doing it bearing in mind the quantity of information in circulation,” Eminagic said.

“The provision also states that the Internet provider is obliged to remove certain harmful content or block access as per a decision by a competent body.”

In Bosnia, only a court can rule that content should be removed.

The CRA, he said, can get involved only if Bosnia’s Law on Communications is amended or new legislation is adopted.

“When the Law on Communications was adopted, it completely excluded us in the technical sense from the methods used exclusively for the needs of public security and defence,” Eminagic told BIRN.

“By that logic, we should not be involved in the fight against terrorism,” he said. “It should be done by police agencies.”

Farid conceded there is still no one technology that can automatically and precisely scan texts, images, video material and audio recordings and determine whether it poses a threat for radicalisation, without the human factor.

However, he told BIRN, “if the question is whether we have the possibility to remove some of the content after it has been identified, the answer is absolutely yes.

“And that is what eGLYPH and other associated technologies and other versions of this technology in use are for. This requires cooperation between human moderators and technology.”

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